Chapter 3: Ideal Types of Environmentalism
Summary:
The author begins this chapter by introducing the concept of the four ideal types of environmentalism in terms of environmental organizations. These types are ecoimperialists, ecodependents, ecoresisters, and ecoentrepreneur organizations. These classifications are not specific but rather encompass a broad scope of actions and patterns that may exist throughout Ecuador’s history and how they may have changed or adapted due to certain circumstances. Lewis further explains that these groups were formed based on many features including their funding, range of influence, and goals. Types of environmentalism vary in numbers and classifications based on the person studying them and therefore these four types mentioned above attempt to use a wider range of classification tools. Funding plays an important role.
Ecoimperialist organizations are transnational or global organizations that extend their reach to Ecuador by establishing branches inside the country itself. These groups provide considerable funds to the country with their large budgets and have goals of conservation. The author notes several major ecoimperialist organizations such as the Wildlife Conservation Society, The Nature Conservancy, and the United States Agency for International Development (Lewis, p.48). The latter two brought in tens of millions of dollars for the country through its Parks in Peril program. While this may seem very positive, some critics of these organizations feel they are interfering with the workings of their country by often times working above Ecuador’s native organizations with their own means of operation, displacing Ecuadorian NGOs. Natives see these corporations as taking over land and resources. These organizations are also often seen working with unethical corporations in their founding countries.
The second ideal type of environmentalism, ecodependent organizations, work nationally through the means of ecoimperialist or transnational groups. A large majority of funding comes from other countries while working from offices within the country and with the state on the tasks at hand. A well-recognized example of this type of organization as noted in the book is Fundación Natura, who often works with large organizations including WWF to achieve its goals. Both ecoimperialist and ecodependent groups work towards the same goals. However, the variability in funding affects these organizations and results in inconsistency and can result in their demise. Additionally funding is desired by all ecodependent groups thus creating a division and competition among these organizations. Ecoimperialist groups also have more authority over the goals of these organizations and can drive local organizations away from their goals in the country.
Ecoresisters are the third type of environmentalism and are activists rather than organizations and may or may not work for them. They volunteer and work locally on small scales with the community and do not receive funding (unless specifically asked for) or goals from organizations. Ecoresisters are against the harsh impact of development. For example, DECOIN stopped Japan and Canada from mining in the Andes and is working to stop Ecuador from mining as well. This affects the economy and the job market and brings up issues among those making a living and bringing in revenue while attempting to protect the environment.
Ecoentrepreneur organizations work by charging fees for their work and sometimes receive funds from larger organizations. They work to protect those in their community rather than focus on conservation efforts. They are considered payment for ecosystem services (PES) as the incoming and outgoing funds are used to help benefit the people and the environment.
Reflection:
The author’s way of breaking down types and levels of environmentalism in the country seems to be a viable and logical classification. It explains the organizations from a broad scale to a more specific, localized scale and helps with understanding how both funding and goals affects each type. Ecuador, being small and struggling to bring in revenue, needs both larger transnational organizations and their funding as well as local groups to help prevent too much manipulation and interference in their country’s workings. The power of NGOs is discussed: “Although NGOs do not have the law-making authority of the state, their ability to generate what scholars call “soft” law, through campaigning, mobilization, advocacy, lobbying, agenda-setting, and negotiation, is widely acknowledged and put to effective use” (Jenkins, 2012, p. 460). These environmental groups, that work at different levels and scales, ensure work is being done on both national and local issues.
The state of Ecuador and its economy affects its funding and thus the efforts it can put towards conservation and sustainable development. The fluctuation of the country economically puts it at risk and poses a challenge for environmental groups and their causes. The book mentioned that ecoimperialists will work with NGOs if the country itself is weak. However, if the country’s economy is struggling and bringing in less revenue it can lead to more environmentally damaging practices and hinder, if not ruin the goals of these organizations. The country is also at the will of the funds of these organizations. As stated in an article on the oil struggle in Ecuador, “Indeed, community participation, environmental health regulation, and economic redistribution may be better achieved through grassroots efforts that target the state, rather than through transnational engagement dependent on international bodies and concerns” (Widener, 2007). This poses the question of whether substantial funds are worth the variability and dominance that international corporations carry. Regardless, the funds these organizations bring in for the country are very beneficial to the health and protection of Ecuador’s ecosystems.
Additionally, organizations working within the country, including ecodependent organizations, will be affected by the state of Ecuador. They rely on outside funds and are therefore also affected by the condition of the economy. Ecoresisters are essential in both small and large countries as they voice the opinions and desires of the people and help to accomplish them. While they may bring about issues concerning sustainable development and can affect job opportunities, this balance is necessary to maintain a relationship between the people and the government. Ecoentrepreneur organizations are a positive force for Ecuador as funds and services are exchanged in order to benefit both the people receiving the services and the environment. A study on deforestation in Ecuador revealed that “on average, the SBP [Socio Bosque Program] reduced deforestation by 1.5% in those forests that received the SBP’s direct payment. These forests would have been deforested if the SBP had not been implemented” (Cuenca, Robalino, Arriagada & Echeverria, 2018). This organization is an ecoentrepreneur organization and helps reduce human impact on the environment. Both of these types of environmentalism are necessary and can be found in both weak and strong states as ecoresisters do not often accept funds and ecoentrepreneurs operate in exchange for their beneficial services.
References:
Cuenca, P., Robalino, J., Arriagada, R., & Echeverría, C. (2018). Are government incentives effective for avoided
deforestation in the tropical Andean forest? PloS one, 13(9).
Jenkins, G. W. (2012). Nongovernmental Organizations and the Forces Against Them: Lessons on the Anti-NGO
Movement. Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 37(2), 458-527.
Lewis, T. L. (2016). Ecuador's environmental revolutions: Ecoimperialists, ecodependents, and
ecoresisters. MIT Press.
Widener, P. (2007). Benefits and Burdens of Transnational Campaigns: A Comparison Of Four
Oil Struggles In Ecuador. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12(1) 21-36.
Summary:
The author begins this chapter by introducing the concept of the four ideal types of environmentalism in terms of environmental organizations. These types are ecoimperialists, ecodependents, ecoresisters, and ecoentrepreneur organizations. These classifications are not specific but rather encompass a broad scope of actions and patterns that may exist throughout Ecuador’s history and how they may have changed or adapted due to certain circumstances. Lewis further explains that these groups were formed based on many features including their funding, range of influence, and goals. Types of environmentalism vary in numbers and classifications based on the person studying them and therefore these four types mentioned above attempt to use a wider range of classification tools. Funding plays an important role.
Ecoimperialist organizations are transnational or global organizations that extend their reach to Ecuador by establishing branches inside the country itself. These groups provide considerable funds to the country with their large budgets and have goals of conservation. The author notes several major ecoimperialist organizations such as the Wildlife Conservation Society, The Nature Conservancy, and the United States Agency for International Development (Lewis, p.48). The latter two brought in tens of millions of dollars for the country through its Parks in Peril program. While this may seem very positive, some critics of these organizations feel they are interfering with the workings of their country by often times working above Ecuador’s native organizations with their own means of operation, displacing Ecuadorian NGOs. Natives see these corporations as taking over land and resources. These organizations are also often seen working with unethical corporations in their founding countries.
The second ideal type of environmentalism, ecodependent organizations, work nationally through the means of ecoimperialist or transnational groups. A large majority of funding comes from other countries while working from offices within the country and with the state on the tasks at hand. A well-recognized example of this type of organization as noted in the book is Fundación Natura, who often works with large organizations including WWF to achieve its goals. Both ecoimperialist and ecodependent groups work towards the same goals. However, the variability in funding affects these organizations and results in inconsistency and can result in their demise. Additionally funding is desired by all ecodependent groups thus creating a division and competition among these organizations. Ecoimperialist groups also have more authority over the goals of these organizations and can drive local organizations away from their goals in the country.
Ecoresisters are the third type of environmentalism and are activists rather than organizations and may or may not work for them. They volunteer and work locally on small scales with the community and do not receive funding (unless specifically asked for) or goals from organizations. Ecoresisters are against the harsh impact of development. For example, DECOIN stopped Japan and Canada from mining in the Andes and is working to stop Ecuador from mining as well. This affects the economy and the job market and brings up issues among those making a living and bringing in revenue while attempting to protect the environment.
Ecoentrepreneur organizations work by charging fees for their work and sometimes receive funds from larger organizations. They work to protect those in their community rather than focus on conservation efforts. They are considered payment for ecosystem services (PES) as the incoming and outgoing funds are used to help benefit the people and the environment.
Reflection:
The author’s way of breaking down types and levels of environmentalism in the country seems to be a viable and logical classification. It explains the organizations from a broad scale to a more specific, localized scale and helps with understanding how both funding and goals affects each type. Ecuador, being small and struggling to bring in revenue, needs both larger transnational organizations and their funding as well as local groups to help prevent too much manipulation and interference in their country’s workings. The power of NGOs is discussed: “Although NGOs do not have the law-making authority of the state, their ability to generate what scholars call “soft” law, through campaigning, mobilization, advocacy, lobbying, agenda-setting, and negotiation, is widely acknowledged and put to effective use” (Jenkins, 2012, p. 460). These environmental groups, that work at different levels and scales, ensure work is being done on both national and local issues.
The state of Ecuador and its economy affects its funding and thus the efforts it can put towards conservation and sustainable development. The fluctuation of the country economically puts it at risk and poses a challenge for environmental groups and their causes. The book mentioned that ecoimperialists will work with NGOs if the country itself is weak. However, if the country’s economy is struggling and bringing in less revenue it can lead to more environmentally damaging practices and hinder, if not ruin the goals of these organizations. The country is also at the will of the funds of these organizations. As stated in an article on the oil struggle in Ecuador, “Indeed, community participation, environmental health regulation, and economic redistribution may be better achieved through grassroots efforts that target the state, rather than through transnational engagement dependent on international bodies and concerns” (Widener, 2007). This poses the question of whether substantial funds are worth the variability and dominance that international corporations carry. Regardless, the funds these organizations bring in for the country are very beneficial to the health and protection of Ecuador’s ecosystems.
Additionally, organizations working within the country, including ecodependent organizations, will be affected by the state of Ecuador. They rely on outside funds and are therefore also affected by the condition of the economy. Ecoresisters are essential in both small and large countries as they voice the opinions and desires of the people and help to accomplish them. While they may bring about issues concerning sustainable development and can affect job opportunities, this balance is necessary to maintain a relationship between the people and the government. Ecoentrepreneur organizations are a positive force for Ecuador as funds and services are exchanged in order to benefit both the people receiving the services and the environment. A study on deforestation in Ecuador revealed that “on average, the SBP [Socio Bosque Program] reduced deforestation by 1.5% in those forests that received the SBP’s direct payment. These forests would have been deforested if the SBP had not been implemented” (Cuenca, Robalino, Arriagada & Echeverria, 2018). This organization is an ecoentrepreneur organization and helps reduce human impact on the environment. Both of these types of environmentalism are necessary and can be found in both weak and strong states as ecoresisters do not often accept funds and ecoentrepreneurs operate in exchange for their beneficial services.
References:
Cuenca, P., Robalino, J., Arriagada, R., & Echeverría, C. (2018). Are government incentives effective for avoided
deforestation in the tropical Andean forest? PloS one, 13(9).
Jenkins, G. W. (2012). Nongovernmental Organizations and the Forces Against Them: Lessons on the Anti-NGO
Movement. Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 37(2), 458-527.
Lewis, T. L. (2016). Ecuador's environmental revolutions: Ecoimperialists, ecodependents, and
ecoresisters. MIT Press.
Widener, P. (2007). Benefits and Burdens of Transnational Campaigns: A Comparison Of Four
Oil Struggles In Ecuador. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 12(1) 21-36.